​Hip hop is unique among genres of music in that it refers not only to music stylings, chord progressions, and vocal techniques, but to a much broader culture that also includes breakdancing, graffiti, and knowledge. The other pillars of hip hop include MCing, which may include rapping or singing, and DJing.

While the origins of hip hop are typically thought to be found in New York City during the late 1960s and early 1970s, several genres of music and social movements influenced the early days of the culture. Musically, the early originators of hip hop primarily drew on jazz, funk, soul, gospel, and rhythm and blues, as well as contemporary genres, such as disco. Musicians also borrowed from other avenues of African American culture, including so-called blaxploitation films.

Hip hop has always engaged in a dialogue with black intellectualism and broader social trends throughout the United States and around the world. On this note, early hip hop artists responded to the Civil Rights movement and the Vietnam War, among other social and cultural topics.

Because hip hop is a fairly modern genre of music, historians can trace its roots back to specific locations and moments in time. For example, one of the most important instances in the history of hip hop took place on August 11, 1973, at 1520 Sedgwick Avenue in the Bronx. DJ Kool Herc, along with his sister Cindy Campbell, held a house party at which DJ Kool Herc experimented with "breaking" records, a technique that involved drawing out certain segments in songs that drew more people to the dance floor.

Although hugely influential, DJ Kool Herc certainly did not "invent" hip hop, nor did any one individual or group. Kurtis Blow, who DJ'd his first party at the age of 13 without the aid of turntables, drew on the rhythm, stylings, and fashion of James Brown while recording his iconic track "The Breaks," which he used to teach people about hip hop beyond the confines of Harlem house parties. In 1979, Blow became the first rapper to sign a major record label deal, later releasing the song "Christmas Rappin'."

That same year, The Sugar Hill Gang released "Rapper's Delight," one of the first hip hop recordings to chart among the top 40 singles in the US. The genre developed rapidly from that point, with major milestones ranging from the launch of the national television program Yo! MTV Raps in 1987 to Salt-N-Pepa winning a 1989 Grammy for Rap Performance, the first female rap group to win the award.

Since the genre's Harlem house party origins, hip hop has spawned countless subgenres, including boom bap, gangsta rap, g-funk, and trap. The genre has also merged with other so-called mainstream styles of music in the form of rap rock and rap pop. The 1986 "Walk This Way" collaboration between the rock band Aerosmith and Run-D.M.C catapulted the latter to wider success, while revitalizing the former's career.

Numerous hip hop artists have released albums that have sold millions of copies around the world. The most successful hip hop and rap albums of all time include The Fugees' The Score, The Notorious B.I.G.'s Life After Death, and Speakerboxxx/The Love Below by OutKast, which has sold more than 13 million copies.

​Kayaking is an enjoyable outdoor activity that provides physical exercise and the opportunity to explore outdoor spaces. Almost 30 million Americans participated in a paddling sport in 2024, according to Paddling Magazine, with the Outdoor Industry Association recognizing kayaking as the most popular form of paddling. Any person interested in paddling must follow a few essential safety tips and develop foundational kayaking skills, such as creating a response plan in the event of a capsize.

Capsizing occurs when a kayak flips over in the water, so that the kayaker submerges beneath the surface of the water under their boat. Capsizing can cause considerable anxiety for inexperienced paddlers, particularly when strapped into the cockpit. Kayakers may feel trapped and begin to panic, which can significantly complicate the situation. With this in mind, while it may sound counterintuitive, one of the first safety steps kayakers should take involves learning how to capsize their vessel intentionally.

To get started, deliberately capsize your boat in a controlled environment with a friend nearby to practice your responses and self-rescue techniques. While you should practice capsizing and self-rescue in calm, shallow waters, ensure that the water is deep enough to avoid head injuries while flipping the boat and performing a wet exit.

Intentionally capsizing a kayak is relatively easy once you overcome the urge to stay afloat. Rock the vessel back and forth and lean your body in the direction of the craft, generating enough momentum to topple over into the water. The experience of suddenly submerging beneath the water represents an essential aspect of practicing self-rescue.

The first step to self-rescue is the wet exit. To escape from a submerged cockpit, lean forward, slide your hand along the coaming to the loop, and pull hard. After releasing the restraints, place your hands on either side of the cockpit, press your knees together, and push off with all four limbs as hard as possible.

No kayaker should set out without a personal floatation device (PFD). A properly fitted PFD will handle the rest of the wet exit, carrying you to the water's surface. If possible, try to hook a leg into the cockpit while floating to the surface to avoid getting separated from the boat.

At this point, the "scariest" parts of a self-rescue is over, but the more physically demanding steps have only just begun. Deploy the paddle float, a buoyant accessory attached to a paddle blade, to convert the overturned kayak into an outrigger.

Several options exist for turning a kayak over in the water, though in some cases it may be easier to drag the boat to shore. Otherwise, swim to the middle of the boat, hoist yourself onto the belly of the kayak, grab the opposite edge, and pull the kayak into your chest while simultaneously sliding backwards into the water. Alternatively, stronger kayakers can swim under the kayak and quickly push up and turn the boat over.

Finally, return to the righted cockpit by moving to the back of the kayak and, using both hands, pulling yourself onto the boat while kicking your legs for strength and leverage. Position yourself at the rear of the boat, with legs spread and hanging over each side. Then, inch forward until you have moved over the cockpit and lower your body back onto the seat.

​People often use the terms "hip-hop" and "rap" interchangeably. However, hip-hop is a much broader term that describes a culture, including the musical genre of rap. Breakdancing and MCing, for example, are also key elements of hip-hop culture. Rap itself comprises numerous subgenres, such as gangsta rap, boom-bap, trap, and rap rock, among others, as well as freestyle rap.

The origins of hip-hop culture and rap music extend back centuries, but more recent developments began in the early 1970s in the Bronx, New York. Early rap, as well as many modern iterations of the genre, generally consisted of the interplay between two key contributors: an MC, usually short for "master of ceremonies" but in this case referring to the person or people rapping, and a DJ, a person manipulating prerecorded tracks to provide musical accompaniment to the rap.

DJ Kool Herc invented the b-beat, often considered the first hip-hop beat. Initially, rappers performed on the streets, in parks, or at private parties, but within a few years, local club and venue owners saw the commercial potential and started booking MCs and DJs. Sugarhill Records producer Sylvia Robinson recorded the Sugarhill Gang's "Rapper's Delight" in 1979, often viewed as the first commercially successful rap recording.

Individuals can easily track the growth of rap music by looking at record sales in the United States by decade. In the 1980s, rap records did not rank among the top 100-selling albums of the decade. The following decade, numerous rap and hip-hop records sold millions of copies, led by Lauryn Hill's debut solo album, The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill. Hill had provided vocals to the hip-hop band Fugees and continued to explore soul, R&B, and rap on her own; The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill has sold approximately 20 million copies, No. 23 for the 1990s.

MC Hammer enjoyed considerable commercial success as a mainstream hip-hop artist. His third studio album, Please Hammer Don't Hurt 'Em, sold 18 million copies, No. 38 for the decade. Album sales derived largely from Hammer's smash hit, "U Can't Touch This."

Many other 1990s albums featured rap and other hip-hop elements, including TLC's Crazysexycool, The Score by Fugees, and Big Willie Style. Dr. Dre released the top-selling "pure rap" record of the decade, with sales approaching 11 million copies.

Rap's ascension to the top of all album charts occurred the very next year with The Marshall Mathers LP by Eminmen. With 32 million records sold, it ranks as the No. 1 album of the 2000s, edging out 1 by The Beatles. Eminem's 2002 follow-up, The Eminem Show, sold nearly 21 million copies, No. 6 for the decade.

According to ChartMasters.org, at least 30 rappers have sold more than 30 million records during their careers, all of whom rose to prominence in the late 1990s, 2000s, or 2010s. Along with Eminem, top-selling rappers include Jay-Z, 2Pac, Kendrick Lamar, and Snoop Dogg.

​Gender-based violence (GBV) is a term denoting injurious acts such as sexual assault and physical abuse. These acts target а person based on gender and stem from unequal power dynamics and entrenched social norms perpetuating discrimination. The UNHCR - short for United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees - classifies GBV as а human rights violation and a public health crisis. Governments, nonprofits, and communities worldwide are working to combat GBV in various ways.

Entities are resorting to education and raising awareness to combat GBV. UN Women - the United Nations entity dedicated to empowering women and promoting gender equality - partners with organizations worldwide to run initiatives like the “16 Days of Activism.” Such initiatives emphasize changing social norms that perpetuate GBV. Campaigns raise visibility, mobilize communities, and encourage dialogue that breaks the silence around violence. Education functions as а long-term prevention tool by teaching kids about consent, respect, and gender equality. This intervention shapes how children view gender roles and helps break intergenerational patterns of abuse.

Crisis settings demand specific protection measures. In emergency environments such as refugee camps, the breakdown of social structures often increases vulnerability to GBV, particularly for women and girls. To counter these risks, humanitarian actors are now designing camps with protective features, such as separate and secure sanitation facilities, well-lit pathways, and ensuring safe access to essential services. Likewise, the International Organization for Migration stresses integrating GBV risk reduction into camp management and humanitarian programming. This approach is to ensure that facilities, services, and routes people use within camps help reduce exposure to violence. Some entities, like the International Rescue Committee, implement survivor-centered services, safe spaces for women, and protection patrols as а safety strategy.

Dismantling rape culture (attitudes and practices that normalize or excuse sexual violence) helps stop GBV. This cultural pattern, rape culture, sustains gender inequality and silences survivors. The UN Women organization notes the first step to controlling rape culture is naming it and recognizing how it operates. Confronting victim-blaming language, opposing sexist humor, and refusing to dismiss harmful conduct with phrases like "men will always be men” are other ways to stop this culture. These actions create accountability. Regular community conversations raise awareness about how these patterns operate and offer practical alternatives. Prevention also means rejecting beliefs that violence against а person of any gender is acceptable.

Support systems for survivors represent another essential component of GBV prevention. Authorities must protect survivors from retaliation or stigma, both of which cause underreporting. Confidential reporting channels let victims disclose incidents without revealing their identity. Victims also need quick access to а counselling service and referrals to necessary services where they can get immediate medical care, including emergency treatment and reproductive health services, to address related physical harm. Counseling helps them process trauma and restore а sense of self-worth and control. Female victims, in particular, can benefit from dedicated centers and а safe space where they can connect with others and pursue sustained recovery.

Economic dependency traps many victims in abusive relationships. In many cases, those lacking financial independence face barriers to leaving violent situations. Employment access, skills training, and financial services give victims - who are mostly women - control over resources. Organizations like the World Bank support projects that connect women to these opportunities. Education plays а protective role: girls who stay in school and women who can earn income tend to face lower risks of exploitation and intimate partner violence.

Strong laws against GBV protect survivors and punish perpetrators, which deters future abuse. Nations have passed or strengthened legislation that criminalizes various forms of GBV. The US government emphasizes legal accountability systems that prosecute offenders and ensure survivors can seek justice. Data collection and research provide evidence for prosecution and policy development. According to a 2024 IMF report, some governments, with the support of UN partners like UNICEF, rolled out the Gender-Based Violence Information Management System to help track cases, improve case management, and strengthen monitoring of GBV incidence.

​Founded in 1870, the Association of the Bar of the City of New York emerged during a period when corruption had eroded public trust in the city's courts. Its founders aimed to restore judicial integrity by holding dishonest judges accountable. Today, the organization continues to strengthen the legal profession and advocate for reforms that advance the rule of law. To address the diverse areas of modern legal work, the Bar created specialized councils—enabling it to speak with expertise and authority across various fields of law.

The Council on International Affairs serves as the coordinating body for the City Bar's global work. This council brings together and aligns the activities of multiple international committees that focus on international law, foreign legal systems, comparative law, and human rights. Through this coordination, the Council reinforces the City Bar's role as a leading voice and convener on global legal issues. Its work advances the Bar's broader mission of promoting the rule of law and expanding access to justice across borders.

Regional committees are part of the operational network through which the Council carries out its work. These monitor specific parts of the world and handle relationship building, policy analysis, justice issues, and development tracking. The Middle Eastern & North African Affairs Committee (MENA) serves lawyers who work on that region. MENA provides education to members and the public on social, legal, and policy matters affecting the area. Its African Affairs Committee monitors legal and political changes across the continent. It builds sustained relationships through direct engagement with African jurists, government officials, and legal institutions.

The European Affairs Committee unites practitioners and academics to examine issues related to European law and policy. The Asian arm covers legal, political, and economic development across East, Southeast, South, and Central Asia. The Inter-American Affairs Committee focuses on the Western Hemisphere, investigating cross-border issues and transactions, promoting human rights and the rule of law in Latin America, and strengthening ties with regional leaders and institutions.

The Council also works in partnership with several committees addressing cross-border legal issues. The Immigration & Nationality Law Committee evaluates U.S. policies through an international perspective, focusing on matters such as non-citizen detention, immigration legislation, and asylum-based human rights protections. The Vance Center for International Justice mobilizes lawyers worldwide to advance justice, with members from law firms, the judiciary, and NGOs, who fund and direct projects that promote human rights and pro bono work globally. The International Commercial Disputes Committee handles conflicts between international parties, emphasizing dispute resolution through arbitration and cross-border litigation, and serving as a bridge between different legal systems.

To engage experts, practitioners, and the public on pressing global issues, the Council hosts events, panels, symposia, and other gatherings. Rule of law discussions, such as Ukraine: Responses to Atrocity Crimes, unite legal experts to explore accountability mechanisms and the role of international law in addressing war crimes. These events also foster networking and mentorship, helping to build a more inclusive and globally connected legal community.

The Council also partners with the diplomatic community, international NGOs, and peer bar associations to expand its reach and impact. These partnerships create spaces where law, diplomacy, and advocacy meet. This convergence allows the bar to address global challenges with a broader, more representative voice. In 2025, the City Bar partnered with the Society of Foreign Consuls in New York—the world's largest consular corps—to host a two-part program on immigration policy. This event brought together consuls general, immigration experts, leaders, and city officials.

​Many people associate jails with serving time after a conviction. But in much of the United States, most jail beds are filled by people who haven’t yet gone to trial. According to the Prison Policy Initiative, pretrial detention now accounts for the majority of jail occupancy. These early holds stem from decisions made within the first 48 to 72 hours after arrest. While policy debates often center on sentencing, it’s early case actions that most directly shape who stays behind bars.

One of the first barriers is scheduling. If someone is arrested late in the week or after court hours, their initial appearance may not happen for days. Even low-level cases can lead to unnecessary jail time after missing early slots. A more precise driver is whether jurisdictions meet the required appearance window, typically within 24 to 48 hours. When that window passes, brief detention often stretches longer by default.

At arraignment, prosecutors decide how to charge the case and whether to seek bail. Harsher charges or monetary bail requests strongly influence detention. These early choices occur quickly and with limited context, yet they shape the entire pretrial period. Prosecutors also guide custody outcomes through bail recommendations. Although judges make the final decision, the prosecutor’s request often sets the benchmark, especially when citing high bail or public safety. A 2024 RAND Corporation brief found that defendants facing cash bail are significantly more likely to be detained, regardless of risk level.

Judges then assess risk and likelihood of appearance based on available information. Some use structured risk scores. Others rely on personal judgment or local precedent. Discretion varies widely, and outcomes differ across jurisdictions, even in nearly identical cases.

Defense counsel plays a critical role. In some courtrooms, defendants stand before a judge without a lawyer or share counsel across hearings. Without timely advocacy, people may miss chances for supervised release, diversion, or non-monetary bail. According to a randomized study published in Justice Quarterly in 2024, defense counsel at bail hearings reduces detention without increasing failure-to-appear rates.

Beyond legal defense, access to early programs also affects custody. Diversion and supervised release reduce jail use, but only when systems provide them promptly and support full participation. When access delays occur or programs have no space, pretrial detention becomes the default. Early engagement improves outcomes and helps limit unnecessary custody.

Risk assessment tools also influence detention. These automated scoring systems estimate flight risk or the likelihood of rearrest. While intended to increase consistency, many states now require validation, bias checks, and transparency, and judges retain full authority to depart from tool results. This policy structure emphasizes regulating tool use without overriding judicial judgment.

An August 2024 analysis by the Prison Policy Initiative found that even short jail stays can raise the risk of rearrest and trigger cascading consequences. Detention within 24 to 72 hours can disrupt employment, housing, and health care, especially when custody was avoidable.

Local policies govern how these early hours unfold. Jurisdictions that meet appearance timelines, guarantee counsel at first hearings, and expand non-cash release options see measurable reductions in unnecessary detention. Several states are strengthening oversight rules for risk tools to improve fairness.

As performance standards emerge, the next step is to align early-stage targets across systems. When courts, prosecutors, and defenders operate on shared metrics for appearance timelines and release access, early decisions become easier to track and adjust. Embedding these standards into agency budgets or grant programs could reinforce accountable, coordinated custody practices that keep pretrial jail use narrow and time-bound.

​Old school hip-hop, soul, and rhythm and blues, or Black popular music, still hold steady positions in modern listening habits. People don’t just revisit them; they build them into daily routines. Listeners return not for nostalgia alone but for specific qualities that hold up over time. Old school generally refers to earlier catalog eras in these genres, though precise cutoffs vary.

Platform features shape session style at the point of play. Shuffle, loop, skip, and instant track switching encourage either quick pivots between highlights or full-sequence play when listeners choose to stay. Recommendation rows surface tracks listeners already know, and adjacent suggestions make it easier to keep going. Together, these controls guide whether a session becomes a single cut, a short hop, or a sustained run.

Listening behavior is driven primarily by setting and activity, and replay increases when the sound matches the task. People select music that fits what they are doing, which turns certain tracks into reliable tools for focus, movement, or relaxation. That fit keeps listeners engaged and raises replay rates. This alignment increases repeat plays without relying on nostalgia.

Many listeners encounter older catalog tracks in playlists that mix eras and related styles, broadening exposure without intentional searching. Repeated surfacing builds familiarity over time, even when users do not set out to explore that style. Playlist placement builds recognition by keeping older tracks next to the songs people already play. Streaming services reinforce this exposure by placing adjacent tracks where listeners are already active.

The return to physical formats has drawn some listeners back to full albums and remastered catalogs. These sessions feel more deliberate. For those who choose vinyl or CDs, the format experience adds meaning. The appeal often comes from the playback process itself, not just the age or origin of the music.

Playback format still influences how people listen. Vinyl and CDs promote longer, sequence-first sessions because listeners commit to the record they put on. Streaming supports flexible entry and exit points, letting people sample a chorus, jump to a hook, or save a track for later. The format changes how long people listen and how closely they follow a sequence.

Curated playlists provide a structured path into deeper catalogs. Editor-made and algorithmic collections group recognizable singles with lesser-known cuts, while recommendation rails place older songs beside current favorites. That pairing creates low-friction recognition points and increases follow-through into the back catalog. Clear labeling and sequencing increase the likelihood of exploration.

People use these genres in ways tied to routine. Some use them to focus at work; others turn to them during commutes or at night. Over time, they build habits around tasks, timing, and tone. When the same type of sound supports the same activity across days, the replay becomes a pattern.

Listeners also show time-of-day and day-of-week patterns. Platforms observe these periodic cycles and adjust recommendations, which align tracks with common contexts without extra searching. This timing consistency can strengthen replay by matching when listeners are most receptive.

As platforms refine context-aware recommendations, these catalogs remain positioned for practical, everyday use. Systems that understand tempo and energy level, and recognize periodic or contextual patterns, can place classic tracks where they serve specific tasks with less manual searching. When services continue to map familiar qualities to common activities, old-school hip-hop, soul, and R&B sustain replay as a functional sound, as well as cultural memory.

​Many people enjoy kayaking in the summer, but it can involve risks. You must take active steps to stay safe on the water. Precautions can reduce the dangers.

One essential precaution is wearing a properly fitting life vest. A secure life jacket plays a crucial role in emergencies. Select one designed for kayaking that fits tightly across your chest, abdomen, and neck. You also must wear clothing suited to the weather and water temperature. Choose materials that keep you dry and warm. Avoid cotton, which traps moisture and lowers your body temperature. Pack extra clothes in case weather conditions change.

Check the weather and water forecast before setting out. Strong winds, high waves, and storms create unsafe situations that reduce your control over the kayak. Give yourself time to prepare and make smart decisions about your route and timing.

Stay in your skill level and kayak only in areas you know well. Beginners should start in calm, slow-moving waters and gain experience before attempting more challenging routes. Know what you can handle and recognize when to stop. Stay alert to your surroundings and avoid rocks, passing boats, and low-hanging branches.

​Snowshoeing originated as a practical means of winter travel thousands of years ago and has evolved into a recreational activity. It offers a low-impact aerobic workout, allowing you to hike or run through snowy terrain and avoid crowded trails common in warmer months. Several basic techniques help you navigate this activity.

Use a wider stance than usual when walking on flat ground. This prevents your feet from stepping on the insides of your snowshoe frames. You may experience some soreness in your pelvic area after your first few outings. On uphill sections, use your toe or instep crampons to gain traction. Plant your feet firmly in the snow and position your poles ahead of you.

Use the kick-step technique in soft snow. Lift your foot and kick the toe of your boot into the snow to form a step. You may need several attempts to create a secure foothold. The back of your snowshoes will angle downhill while the soles rise above your boots. This places your crampons or cleats directly under your feet for grip. If your kick-step creates deep holes instead of firm steps, consider taking a different path. On hardpack or crusty snow, rely on the traction from your snowshoe crampons or cleats and use your poles to support balance.

Climb moderate slopes directly if conditions allow. On steep slopes, look for an easier path by traversing sideways. Many snowshoes have a heel lift under the heel. Flip this feature up to ease long ascents by keeping your foot more level. On descents, lean slightly back, bend your ankles, stay relaxed, and plant your poles in front of you. Step with your heels first and maintain a smooth, steady pace.

Poles improve your control and balance on descents. Adjust their length to match the slope. Avoid swinging your leg too far forward to prevent your snowshoe from catching and throwing off your balance. Keep your weight steady if the slope grows steeper. Sit down if you start to lose control.

​Soul music stands apart from other genres through its rhythmic tone and deeply emotional lyrics. The genre draws its roots from gospel influences and carries strong elements of rhythm and blues. Over time, soul music has evolved into several distinct styles.

Neo-soul represents a modern take on classic soul. It blends contemporary R&B with the soul music of the 1970s. Kedar Massenberg of Motown Records reportedly introduced the term. While the label "neo-soul" might not be widely recognized, the artists are familiar. Musicians like Erykah Badu, Alicia Keys, and John Legend all contribute to this style.

What some refer to as Brown-eyed soul reflects influence from Latino musicians. It aligns with African American musical traditions but adds a unique cultural blend. Although it connects closely with Mexican rock, artists in this category typically perform in English. The style mixes elements of rock and roll with light R&B influences.

Afro-soul brings a strong connection to African musical traditions. Artists often perform in local languages, depending on their cultural background. This genre shares similarities with Afro-beats and Afro-jazz and features passionate vocal performances. Nigeria and South Africa produce many of the musicians in this category.

Hip hop soul combines the lyrical style of soul with the beats and delivery of hip hop. It also incorporates R&B into its structure. Artists in this genre often reinterpret soul themes through a hip-hop lens, creating a hybrid sound that draws from both traditions.